Gender, Popular Culture and Art forms: Looking at the origins Bharatanatyam and Lavani in India
In this article learn
Content warning: mentions of casteism, classism, sexual abuse, exploitation
Does listening to Indie music or artists from small subcultures make you cooler by an arms-length from the regular Joe? Does non-conformity to the majority of upheld rules of fashion make you an artsy rebel? Is country music a romanticized version of what living in the countryside would look like or is it a real grounded representation of the life,dreams and struggles of people who live there?
Well the answer to these questions isn’t that simple and is grounded in the complex myriad of how society has manifested culture today.
Is popular culture really all-inclusive?
What it means to be the subculture of today is most likely to become the popular culture of tomorrow. The modern-day democratization of pop culture is perhaps what lends it its most important facet; that communities can create, influence and dissipate what culture and subcultures look like. Stuart Hall while situating the importance of cultural studies focused on how popular culture influences the identities that people choose for themselves, as well as the hidden messages woven into pop culture.
Pop culture then in this regard needs to be viewed through the critical lens of whether its democratic nature is simply a farce, a shimmery facade, masking the dark looming truth of cultural domination concentrated in the hands of an elite few.
The culture industry is at its roots yet again another exemplification of capitalist society where the industry is dominated by a few select elites, who select, reshape and impose what the dominant or preferred culture looks like. It is not as though pop culture does not have resistant forces against it. It is at best a collusive industry of both elements.
There is a vibrant landscape of the culture industry that can be attributed to Indian soil. Cross-state variations in art forms, variations in how the art form is perceived as well as new and unique modes of art emerging from communities have always been celebrated and contributed to the cesspool of diversity that is called ‘Incredible India’. But if you looked really closely one might see that there may not be much to celebrate and the term incredible might seem quite farcical.
The Mainstreaming of Art forms
An old TED talk given by a Bharatanatyam dancer recently made its rounds on social media. While many had their own differing takes on how to interpret the subject matter of the talk, at its very essence it brings into the limelight the undeniable question of whether we as consumers of culture have ever bothered to read into its origins.
Umrao Jaan the 1981 film (and its subsequent 2006 remake), considered a sort of magnum opus of Indian art films, was based on an Urdu novel by Mira Hadi Ruswa. Both the movie and the book centered around the life of a tawaif, Umrao Jaan, and explored the moral hypocrisy of the era, where Umrao Jaan also becomes the symbol of a nation that had long attracted many suitors who were only looking to exploit her. (Umrao Jaan Ada, n.d.) Although courtesan culture and old art forms have in some forms made it to mainstream cinema, the depiction of these forms has catered to upper class, caste, and post-colonial mentalities with no mention of the creators of such forms of art. It has also been gendered in the sense that, the portrayal of women in such art forms did more harm than good.
I. The origins of Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam, one of the oldest Indian classical dance forms needs no introduction. Most people have at some point in their life heard of it and even interacted with it, either on a one on one basis or through their social circles. At the very least one has probably watched a Bharatanatyam performance and lauded it for the grace and beauty that it exudes. However, this romanticized modern post-colonial performance of the art form is quite divorced from the social and gendered context of the dance form.
In pre-colonial India, Bharatanatyam was performed by the Issai Vellalar community living in Tamil Nadu. This was a community highly involved in performative arts. Some women in these communities were referred to as Devadasis i.e ritual temple dancers The term Devadasi literally translates to a servant of God. These were women who dedicated their lives to the worship of the deities in temples and used dance as a tool for the same.
The devadasis were pioneers of the dance form of Bharatnatyam, yet barely are they invisible in the construction of the dance form today.
They occupied a place of power in society, through the practice of music and dance in temples, courts, and public spaces. They had some sexual freedom, and lived their lives as independent artists, with claims over land in their names.
The women in other communities (mostly upper caste and class) were restricted to the patriarchal households and engaged primarily in domestic work(rare instances of upper-class women being devadasis has been recorded).
On the other end of the Devadasi spectrum, those from marginalized Dalit communities faced abuse and were forced into sex work. Often girls from families were donated to temples and were subjected to abuse by patrons of the temples and other men. While Devadasis were not allowed to marry (since their lives were dedicated to worship in the temple), they had the freedom to engage in sexual relations. However under this guise, often they were exploited and sexual violence was perpetrated against them.
Devadasis were viewed under the patriarchal male gaze as women who existed to cater to the lustful demands of men.
The advent of colonial rule in India impacted the perception of Devadasis in society. They were regarded as harlots and prostitutes by the colonial masters and Christian missionaries. The imposition of Victorian morality and the constructs of an ideal woman brought by colonialism was instrumental in shaping the way Indian society began looking at the Devadasis.
However, the effort of the nationalist movement, that tried to bring ‘reform’ to society was ultimately what ended the Devadasi culture. The Devadasi Act that was supported by Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy was enacted on 9 October 1947 just after India became independent. The law was passed in the Madras Presidency and gave devadasis the legal right to marry and made it illegal to dedicate girls to Hindu temples (Wikipedia, n.d.). Subsequently most states made the practice illegal.
Although the reasons for why Dr Reddy advocated for the act were necessary, it led to the erasure of the Devadasi livelihood and left them with nothing. The act was meant to tackle the sexual abuse and exploitation of Devadasis, and the selling of young girls to temples, however, it cost the Devadasis their art, living quarters, and the only means of life known to them while the men got off scot-free. (Janardhanan, 2020)
Thus the reputation of the upper-caste men was protected at the cost of the reputation of the Devadasis (Mohan, 2018). The phenomenon was reinforced by upper-caste women as well because by then
the bodies of Devadasi women had been sexually politicized and were deemed immoral and beneath societal standards.
The passing of the act as well as the end of the colonial era had erased the Devadasi identity leaving them marginalized and almost in penury.
Postcolonialism and Bharatanatyam
It was years after independence that upper-class women took to Bharatanatyam to revive this form of art. However, the social sanctions on the dance form were no longer placed upon them. The presence of an upper-class woman in the dance made it an acceptable and sanitized art form that became almost essential to the breeding of cultured girls in society. Further, the sexual elements in the dance were replaced with spiritual content in order to free it off its previous immoral connotations. Thus began the resurgence of the glorious art of Bharatanatyam where the Devadasi community was cut off from any association with the art and faced barriers in gaining access to spaces they previously called their own. (Kabilan, 2020)
Although ironically upper-class women came to dance teachers of the Devadasi community to learn their art, the Devadasi women were rendered the invisible patrons of their own art.
(Kabilan, 2002)
II. The origins of Lavani
Running parallel to the world of Bharatanatyam is the Maharashtrian genre of music called Lavani which incorporated both song and dance performed to the beat of the Dholki. The earliest links of this genre of music date back to the Peshwa period.
The erotic nature of Lavani of this period suggests that it was produced as a popular form of entertainment and became one of the modes of constructing the sexuality of women of the lower castes. This construction was crucial to the pre-colonial Peshwa state in the appropriation of the labor of lower caste women - through the institution of slavery.
The eroticism and adulterous nature of lower caste women depicted in the Lavanis gave Indian rulers major grounds on which the sexual and productive labor of these women was appropriated.
(Rege, 2002)
While the women who performed to Lavanis were seen as erotic capital quite the opposite meaning was attached to the art form of Powada (a genre of Marathi poetry). The Powada which was also performed at the courts of kings spoke volumes about the male bravery, valor and courage as well as the success of wars and conquests (again glorifying the male soldiers).
The Lavani was given feminine constructs of beauty, emotion, and sexuality while the Powada was attributed to bravery and strength.
(Rege, 2002)
Postcolonial society and the impact on Lavani
With the transition into modern society, there was an emergence of the middle classes and Lavani became an art form of lower classes. It saw societal decry at the hands of the middle and upper classes.
Newly emerging bourgeoisie forms of entertainment such as the theatre were in staunch opposition to the performance of Lavani. The moral and cerebral sanitization of theatre (all roles were performed by males) saw Lavani reduced to a sensuous and licentious form of low-grade art. While lower class women tried to form theatre companies of their own it saw opposition.
Women who performed to Lavanis were seen as erotic capital
Then came the ‘sangeet baris’ which were midway between the old traveling troupes of Lavani dancers and theatre troupes. These were composed of women still trying to hold on to their only known livelihood. They controlled their finances and their way of life. However, the deleterious consequences of the Peshwa rule and the modern-day society reduced these dancers to nothing more than prostitutes engaged in gaudy avatars and art forms. (Swamy, 2009)
In contrast the Powadas today remains an unadulterated, authentic, and political expression of a Marathi and Hindu identity reflective of the double standards of gender that afflict Indian culture today.
Answering the question of democratization of popular culture
If popular culture is truly the participatory culture of the masses, it cannot be perpetuated at the exclusion of certain communities. The critically acclaimed Hindi film Devdas featured a courtesan in one of its leading roles while also being reflective of the negative social stance towards such women. The romanticization of courtesan dance forms was also seen in the 2015 hit, Bajirao Mastani when Mastani performs for Bajirao’s court as well as the Lavani dance duet between Mastani and Kashibai.
Pop culture cannot be a culture produced and reproduced through a rosy lens, by a select group of individuals in society. Most importantly it becomes pertinent to look into the cultural influences and social backgrounds that drove the evolution of art forms through the years. To give back power and spaces to communities from whom these art forms were appropriated can only be the true celebratory aspects of such art forms.
Bharatanatyam and Lavani are only two among numerous art forms entrenched in gendered power structures that sought to disenfranchise women from freely expressing their sexuality. While the problematic abuse faced by Devadasis was recognized and tackled, it reinforced the connotation of the immorality of some castes. The sensualization of women’s bodies through the male gaze hence has rendered Devadasis and Lavani dancers, bereft of any control over their own sexuality and most of all robbing them of their livelihood. The refusal of society to give recognition to these women as equal performers of art, will remain if not corrected a significant failure of Indian artistic culture to this date.
KEY TERMS AND THEORIES
Popular Culture
It refers to the participatory democratic culture based on the tastes of ordinary people rather than an educated elite. It is held in contrast to high or elite culture. Pop culture also is a system of commercialism that privileges products selected and mass-marketed by the upper-class capitalist elite.
Cultural Appropriation
Cultural appropriation also refers to a particular power dynamic in which members of a dominant culture take elements from a culture of people who have been systematically oppressed by that dominant group.
Culture Industry
It was a term coined by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer in which they said that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods that are used to manipulate the masses into passivity.
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A study conducted by the National Law School of India University, Bangalore in 2018 in two taluks of Bellary district in Karnataka
50% were sexually abused as minors even after the enactment of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (POSCO)
92% of the Devadasi women who participated in the study were dedicated when they were minors
References
Janardhanan, A. (2020, February 17/02/2020). A young dancer takes a hard look at Bharatanatyam’s burden of caste. Retrieved from The Indian Express: https://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/why-i-call-myself-a-devadasi-6269432/
Kabilan, K. (2020, July 09/07/2020). An unequal art. Retrieved from The New Indian Express: https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2020/jul/09/an-unequal-art-2167212.html
Mohan, R. (2018, August 13/08/2018). Of dance, devadasis, and double standards: Chennai-based Bharatanatyam dancer Nrithya Pillai. Retrieved from The New Indian Express : https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2018/aug/13/of-dance-devadasis-and-double-standards-chennai-based-bharatanatyam-dancer-nrithya-pillai-1856869.html
Rege, S. (2002). Conceptualising Popular Culture: 'Lavani' and 'Powada' in Maharashtra. Economic and Political Weekly .
Swamy, R. (2009, March ). Dancing queens. Retrieved from The Indian Express : http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dancing-queens/434956/1
Umrao Jaan Ada. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umrao_Jaan_Ada
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act. Retrieved from Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Devadasis_(Prevention_of_Dedication)_Act
Lisa Jacob
Lisa is a cheesecake enthusiast who looses hair ties by the day, enjoys long runs and hopes to one day finish reading all the many journal articles she has downloaded on her desktop.
